Rabu, 29 April 2015

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

A.    Introduction
The concept in communication is to use the language. Language is very important in all aspects of life, especially as we are human beings. In daily life, people use the language to express what is in their hearts and thoughts to others. In forwarding, human beings to pass some process from a thought to be a language that has been mentioned. Included in the process that is language acquisition for kids, processing language in the brain, delivery language, etc. If it was seen from the psychology, language is associated with a psychological one. Will be very different languages in which people who are pleased with the people who are angry or sad, the man who was sick with healthy person, who is in a tired, and the people who are in a fit, all will be different.[1]
In terms Of language acquisition for kids, those who have been trained to use English mother and good and right, will be comfortable to use English is good and right, is inversely proportional to the since he was a kid does not have been trained to use English well and correctly, and he will not be comfortable with it. Besides the above, other things that language-related someone is biological conditions, in this case the nerves. Nerves is a computer system link that made an idea to a phrase language.
Initially, psycholinguistics is not independent knowledge, which is examined in particular. Psycholinguistics is the knowledge that studied separately by both the linguistic experts as well as experts psychology. The term psycholinguistics itself was first used by Thomas A. Sebeok and Charles E. Osgood in 1954 in a book entitled Psycholinguistik : A survey of Theory and Research Problems. Although in fact, recent studies firmly grounded has started since the days of socratic Method and Panini.[2]
As we have seen that language is a symbol system (symbol) the noise of the arbitrary agreed to be used by the members of the group community to identify themselves, working together, or interact, then in this case also had contacts with language human soul. Both psychology and language (linguistics), both have closeness that help and to serve people so that they could live with good and easily. But, in understanding a scientific disciplines should we delve into study of the scientific disciplines. Psycholinguistics is a joint or combination of discipline of psychology with discipline of the linguistic. One cannot explain toeing around issues (at psycholinguistics with only guessing or consider from his name only. Of course, psycholinguistics not only discuss levels language that is influenced by on a person, in a study disciplines, discussed the relationship psycholinguistics psychological man in using language.
I.                  History of psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics is knowledge hybrid that is, knowledge, which was a compound examine both of psychology and linguistic. Seed this knowledge actually have appeared in the 20th century when psychologist Germany, Wilhelm Wundt said that language can be explained by the principles of the psychological (Kess, 1992).  At that time study language began to change from his nature that aesthetic and cultural to an approach that "scientific."
Meanwhile in the Americas connection between language with knowledge people also have started to grow. This development can be divided into four stages (Kess, 1992): (a) formative phase,(b) linguistic phase, (c) cognitive phase and (d) theory psycholinguistics phase, psychological reality, and cognitive science.[3]
a.       The formative phase
John W. Gardner, a psychologist from Carnegie Corporation, America, in the middle ages to 20th centuries, began formulating hybrid (the conjunction) both knowledge. This idea and then developed by a psychologist, John B. Carroll, who held a seminar at the University of Corrnell for initiating an interrelationship between the two knowledge discipline is at the end of 1951. At the end of 1953, the meeting was continued at the University of Indiana. This meeting to make the resonance that is so strong among the experts knowledge soul and the language so that a lot of research and then be directed to link between the two this science (Osgood and Sebeok, 1954).  It is the time when psikolinguistics was first used.[4]
b.      The linguistic phase
The development of the linguistic re-oriented in the bloodstream behavioristik then moved to mentalisme (psychological nativism) in 1957 with published books Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Struktures and sharp criticism from Noam Chomsky to the theory behavioristik B. F. Skinner has made psycholinguistics as knowledge that many interested by people. And develops rapidly because this view Noam Chomsky about universal language is getting lead to language acquisition for kids especially why children in any language, get them by using a strategy that period.[5]
A common strategy is supported by developing of science neolinguistik and biolinguistik. A study in neolinguistik shows that human brain has decreed that is different from other primate in structure and function. There are people In the brain that is set aside for language while in an animal parts of this is not there.
Biolinguistik is a science hybrid between biology and linguistically and trying to answer questions five central in a study language that was put forward by Noam Chomsky: (1) what is meant by knowledge language, (2) how this knowledge, (3) how knowledge was applied (4) brain mechanism which is relevant in this case (5) how this knowledge have a role in human species (Jenkins 2000).  First question refers to a knowledge of language that human knowledge such as what is owned by people so that he was able to speak. This is associated with the second question where it came from this knowledge. Wheather knowledge has already been there since human beings are born (innate) or by from environmental man is born. Third trying to answer questions about how knowledge was applied on the data. With the knowledge that we have a parameter what we use to process and digest input that goes to us. The four questions related to the role human brain that distinguish it from the brain animals and last question refers to circumstances that distinguishes human beings with animals that is what knowledge and ability to speak, owned exclusive man.[6]
Nexus between language with neobiologi support a Noam Chomsky, said that growth language in human beings programd genetically. Human beings are born in the world is not with an empty plate (theory tabula taste).  Time was born human cases have been supplied with what he gets called faculties of the mind (over plots young) that one of its specially created for language acquisition for kids. According to Noam Chomsky, people have provisions for rapid humanity advancement (innate properties) time was born and provisions are then made it to be able to develop their language.
The scholars have been many investigating and trying to teach animals speak (Kellogs 1933; Hayes 1947; Gardner1966; Terrace, 1979, but has not even one of them, which is considered a success. Cave, a chimpanzee that is examined by Professor and Puan kellogg, can understand about seventy words but he could not speak . Viki, a chimpanzee that was taught by Dr. and Puan Hayes, and finally, only can tell papa, mama, cup, and up. Professor and Puan Gardner to train a chimpanzee Washoe using sign language. Washoe contributed only about 100 words in the 21 months, but it is still could not speak. A Chimpanzee who had been trained by Herbert Terrace called Nim Chimsky (as a joke to public is exposed to powerful persuasive Noam Chomsky.) seems to indicate that there is a capability combining the words, but after examined more obvious that ability, but only vague.
They got language is unique to humans, only people may treat one another unjustly who can speak. Other creatures can do many things, including things that were done by people but the ability to merge them is only limited in circumstances that non-verbal. As soon as they were protesting at a verbal eastward to them is different from that of man.[7]

c.       The cognitive phase
At this stage psycholinguistics began to lead to the role cognition and biological basis for man in language acquisition for kids. Noam Chomsky said that linguis is actually a cognitive psychology. They got language in man is not self-control components language without based on the principles of the cognitive problems. Grammar for example will no longer be seen as something that apart from cognition men for their constituents in a speech actually reflects reality psychology that is in human beings.
Speech is not a sequence the noise of the linear but the sequence sound that formed units constituents and each hierarkhis this unit, and each hierarkhis unit is reality psychological warfare. This phrase can be replaced one word such as Ahmad or him.
At this stage people began to speak about the role in biological language because they feel that biology is a foundation upon which the language grow. Noam Chomsky and Lenneberg said that growth language a man genetically related with the growth cetaceans.[8]

d.      The theory psycholinguistics phase
In the final stages of the, psycholinguistics would no longer stand as knowledge that separated from other science because they got and the use of the language man when it comes to many branches of science. Psycholinguistics no longer consist psychosocial support and linguistically, but also in relation to other sciences such as neurology, philosophy, primatology, and genetic engineering.
Neurology own important role in the language ability of man speaking because apparently is not because the environment but because the nature neurological disturbance was brought from birth. Without a brain with the functions that we have as it is now, it is impossible man able to speak. [9]Knowledge philosophy again holding role is important because they got knowledge is a problem of ancient times to have a debate among the philosopher-what knowledge, and how people acquire knowledge. Primatology and genetic study to how far the language for people and how specific genetic related with the growth language. Psycholinguistics has now become knowledge that is supported by other sciences

II.               Definition of psycholinguistics
To the different definitions psycholinguistics although essentially the same. Aitcison (1998: 1) defines it as a "study of language and mind".  Harley (2001: 1) called it as a "study about the process mental wearing".  Meanwhile, Clark and Clark (1977: 4) states that psychology language associated with three main things: comprehension, production, and they got language. From these definitions it can be concluded that psycholinguistics is knowledge that studied the process that is passed through mental by people in order to language.
In detail psycholinguistics studied four main topic: (a) comprehension, namely the process mental health that passed by the people so that they can catch what people and to understand what is meant, (b) production, namely the process mental ourselves that makes us can be said as we speech, (c) biological basis and neurological disorders that makes human beings can speak, and (d) they got languages, namely how children get their language.[10]

III.           Nature of language
            Humans have characteristics: different style to produce the language between human and animals. Animals can communicate with each other, wearing "tongues" their own. For example, in the animal apes, if there is a danger that threatens them, apes can communicate with apes, another with a certain way. So is the man, we have to communicate with using our language. Even though they are on one side there are some similarities, on the other hand there is a particular characteristics that distinguishes the language of birds language of man.
a.       First, tongues of men (starting from now: language) have a high dependence structures-dependence). A sequence said in his words does not constitute a random sequence but one depends on the other. The sequence said it is seen in linear but one word with one another word to form a structure hierarkhis. Humans always depend on the structure-dependence.
Example: I kicked the ball

b.      Second, humans language can't differenciate with animals language. In language using, humans can't producing the creative language styles likes methapore, action, etc. Language and users language, creative. In terms Of user language, he creative because he has the ability to understand and speak the speech any new. Speech that we have heard anytime also had not been there is none like ujaran that we have heard before, even though book organizes period. However, we can understand it. So in studying: we never issued are exactly the same speech, even if we are talking about the same. The creative there are only words in humans. It has never been you have heard before, but you must understand it.[11]

Example: Compassion, his feet debt side but he must bear millstone for a bag that we are looking for food on a day this heat.

In terms of their own language, the English language structure is creative because allows users to manipulate it during the rule rule certain followed. In a sentence that ended with the name, for example, we can always add clause relative, and if clause this relative also ended with the name, we still can be expanded to memory we restrictive. It was clear From the example kreativiti language.

Example: The indicator feeling burned the house that owned by people who steal their property that is stored in a bank that would be suspended by the government is trying to become golden economy that …. .

Language also creative because shape is not controlled by external factors. If a man his feet be stepped on by the other time went by bus, the reaction verbal that will be given it cannot be predicted. He may be cried out: Aduuuh; he can curse: the eye butakah, invisible road., or he may be silent. Time saw Queen Beautiful World emerged, one can be turned away their faces: finalise while There is satan, satan, satan. But there is the one that might say: Whoa! What a beautiful, etc. External factors such as shaky at his feet and the emergence of Queen Beautiful World are not able to determine form language that pronounc by human beings. The reaction like this is different from the reaction animals. When a cat be stepped on its tail, he will definitely will scream miauuu ... and even he tried to bite the stirrup.

c.       Third, language can be used to express situation or the events that have been past or that it has not happened and even for something that was shaded to imagine. Language structure allows us to talk about the incident that happened yesterday or even hundreds of years ago. Human language possible we are talking about rain evening overnight or things about Sultan Mansor Shah students from the kingdom Malacca. Language structure allows us to talk about what we intend or will happen in the future. We can even thought speaking about or dreams. Things like this is not to be found in a means of communication animals.[12]
Animals, like a swarm of bees, can also said that the new honey that he saw, but the ability like this is very limited. If the leading to a honeycomb bees, passing through their nests, he will lead to a honeycomb the first.
d.      The four, languages have double structure which is called the structure hidden (deep structure) and the structure was born (surfsce popularly). In many ways both this structure is united so that is not seen the difference. In the example as below, both structure in nor surface structure is the same.
Example: Many experts parliament that pour.
But in many other things there is a structure the surface that actually has two structures in different ways. In the following example:
Example: 1. The shooting of the hunter was terrible (deep structure)
We see that there is a structure the surface. However, one sentence has two structures in a different. So far, the meaning is that no two also, namely:
a.    The hunter shot someone cracked me and the way he did it feel very bad.
b.    Someone cracked me shot the hunter and this action was very bad.
Here appears the hidden that the two (1) due to the existence of two structures in a different as seen in (a-b).  It is not impossible that there were there two structures the surface, but actually represents two structures in a different. Example: 
2. John is easy to please
3. John is eager to please
We see that the two sentences have been born are exactly the same structure: subject followed by the verb is, adjective easy/eager, infinitifto; and please. But, from (2) we can to make sentences (2a) while from (3) we will not be able to make sentences (3a).[13]
2a. It is easy to please John.
3a. *It is eager to please John.
So, although (2) and (3) seems to have a same structure, it turns out that similarities, there is only on the surface. The phrase for the second sentence is different as seen in fact (2a) and (3a).
On the other hand, can occur in the existence of two sentences that surface structure but different structure it. Note:
4. They beat me.
5. I was beaten by people.
Both the verse have meaning that period, the difference is that this sentence (4) form sentences active while passive sentences (5).

From the above illustration it can be concluded understanding of the structure in opposing the surface structure: (a) one verse can have a structure of the surface and the structure, (b) a verse can have two structures in a different, (c) two verses that seems to have a surface structure that period is found to have two structures in a different, and (d) two sentences that have two different structure the surface is found to have a structure of the period.
e.       Fifth, language, by all generations from one generation to generation of the other. Sundanese Son who was born and raised in the family Sundanese in Bandung will get Sundanese language. But language which is obtained by children depends on the comments of a society where children are living. A child who was born in Kuala Lumpur and interact with the Kuala Lumpur will get language, Kuala Lumpur even though the age of Kedah. In contrast, the son of his father and mother Kelantan who was born in the land of Nine and mix with the local Seremban probably will get language of Nine.[14]
This is not happening in animals because they got "language animals" is instinct or Instinctive. A bird terkukur will give voice to the sound birds terkukur if any time he was born and raised in the "community" birds starling (crow) or parrots. A kitten will caterwaul, if any time he left by their mothers' milk and brought up by the human being to protect them. Cats in Kuala Lumpur and cats in London will caterwaul with same sound despite the fact that they were brought up in two different environment.
f.       The Sixth, the relationship between words and objects, works, or the state to which he refers, arbitreri (run extention). There is no reason why a thing we'll call rice and a works we'll call ran away. This connection merely a second helvetic convention (custom), the approval, among the language. For that reason, they devised English rice and run while the Malays rice and ran away.
Allegedly animals there are some things that arbitreri. When angry, the bird gull (sea gulls) allegedly, even went away from their enemies and plucking grass, an act that do not appear to be associated with anger.
g.      The Seventh, the English patterns duality, this means that sounds itself does not have the significance and meaning after new sounds, we combine. The sound /k/, /s/, and a/ separately is meaningless. However, after /k/ combined with /a/ and then /s/ then formed by the word /cash/; but if combined is /s/, /a/, and /k/, then formed is other words, namely, /canker/. 
h.      The Eighth, languages , have semantisitas, it means that as soon as a name is given the name will always refers to the concept told them, even though they are in fact did not meet the requirements for the name. Take the word seats. So we control the concept that was represented by the object, so if at one time we saw that there was a chair on which his legs broken one, we will still be devised seats.[15]
IV.            Definition of language
In the picture the characteristics of the top, language can be defined from various point of view. But definitions are many people are: The language is a system of symbols oral arbitreri that used by a local language to communicate and interact with his neighbor, based on culture in which they have together.
The system at this definition refers to the elements of the relationship with each other that eventually formed a constituents that Petitioners failed submit his nature. In the field phonology, for example, these elements are sounds that were found in language that concerned. The elements with the sound is of course is different from one language to the language. In the English, for example, there are many sound is also in our language, but there are some of the sounds that is not in our language. The sound English /th/ and /e/ like in the words of the thin and then, for example, there is nothing in Malay language. English is not On the other hand, have a sound /mrs./ like the word Malay 'no'.
Sounds this forms a system in the sense that a combination of a sound with the noise of the other not just follow a certain order but. Two languages can have some of the sounds, for example, a sound [T], [b]tiles, [s]tiles, [k]tiles, [t], and [a], but A, Javanese language, allowing (m) and (b) to start a word, such as in the word 'miss', but, the English language language B, not allow it. There is nothing in this language the word that started with mb such as, for example, *mbear, *mboating, and *mblasted. English allows Instead, their cluster consonant /skt/ in the last words such as the words per æskt/ asked and /mæskt/ masked while Javanese language forbade it. In Petitioners failed submit, a group formed the sound of tribe, a group of forming the word. That it might be fulfilled the words such as bamboo (Indonesia), playon (Central Java), and happy (English).[16]
In components syntax, languages have, for example, the elements A, B, and C. However, the English X confirming the sequence ABC, while language Y confirming the Commonwealth Bank. An example that concrete is the word A = the, B = blue, blue, and C = book, the book. With the English, the English language, X the sequence is ABC, the blue book, while in language Y, English, CBA, blue book. In a group Petitioners failed submit the word form a phrase and a group phrase to form a clause that envisioning a clause as blue book, it is very expensive or The blue book is very expensive.
A system in language is a system that consists of their symbols. In the example above, the symbols of this is the word that vocab, blue, book, etc. because language is spoken of symbols, but this is also the symbols of the tongue. These symbols is arbitrerari, that is, there is no correlation between these symbols of the objects, the state, or the events that they represent. There is no reason why objects that are used to sit named seat, which was sent by post named letters, and that had been drunk named water; so did the unhealthy named hospital and taking another person's belongings named steal. All the words do not have a reason why is this reality. The sound animals, which is called onomatopea, often used as the argument to oppose the arbitreri, but it sounds this animal is actually arbitreri. A Crow and big cats we sound we symbol as kukuluruk and ngiau, but if the animals were also issued the noise of the period in the ears English? Of course, do not, because even though the sound the same, according to the sound English ear chicken is cock-a-doodle-do and the sound is cats meow.
The symbol System oral arbitreri was used by the society the language, that is, people who have the language. People were from other languages may not, of course using this system. The language use language to communicate and interact with each other for them, but in interacting they are then, by unconscious, dikendala by the culture that they lap. On their language is a reflection of their culture. The rejection of his words Tutiek marry Ahmad not due to confusion grammar but ignorance suitable in Indonesian culture. In culture we, a woman may be married to a man, but he was not able to marry him. In contrast, the words of English How old are you? That aimed to a woman felt quite normal for us, but been considered less worthy by speaker English because in English culture problem age, especially for women, is a personal matter that are not fit to be questioned.[17]

V.                Language component
Phology indeed had various changes, both in terms of the foundation philosophy or principal. The debate between the behavioris with the people of this mentalist produce a major changes in the science language: science language now dominated by the people of this mentalist. But there was one thing he stays constant, namely, the components language.
In the bloodstream linguistic any language always say has three components: syntax, phonology, and semantics. Components syntax to handle affairs related to the word, the phrase, and his words. Study about the words, such as study about how the words were established and sent down, generally are dealt with in a the argument that is named morphology. Although morphology is getting to obtain a place as a subilmu itself, especially when it has been developing morphology generative (see Halle, 1973; Aronoff, 1976; Scalise, 1984; Jensen, 1990; Spencer, 1991; Katamba, 1993), in relation with components language knowledge is included as part of the components syntax.[18]
At the time mainstream theory mentalistic pioneered by Noam Chomsky reached the stage for so-called standard theory in the year 1965, the components syntax is central components. By using the phrase structure (happy birthday popularly monster), component syntax mediocre (value addes) structure which represent hidden meaning sentence. A words like
(1) young leaders, need to find the best way 
Formed in accordance with the phrase structure following:
 FN KB FV
 V FN
 N (ADJ) (Pen)
 seek, choose ...
 leader, roads, ...
 must, can, ...
 best, great, ...
, therefore, this ...
From the rule phrase structure can be diagram generation trees as seen below (in Indonesia):
Pemimpinmimo
 
1a.
 
Description: C:\Users\Acer\Downloads\Bab 1 Hal 19.jpg

Young Leaders, need to find the best way.[19]

In theory standard Noam Chomsky, applying phrase structure as the above can be charged the transformation to change it to his words. Of the sentences (1) can be reduced sentences negative
(1b) young leaders does not have to find the best way
By applying the rule transformation negative. Exodus of the components syntax without transformation called inner structure. After a transformation is named the structure was born.
Different with components syntax, components phonology is interpretif. These components to handle affairs related to the sound. The sound is a symbol orally that is used by man for any reported that wants to be conveyed. With the English is no sounds that nature universal, namely, that was found in any language also (Jakobson, 1971).  The sound vocal [a]tiles, [i], and [u] is vocal minimum system that was found in every language. Language might have more than three vocal about this, but there is no language in the world that has less than three vocal.
In components phonology not only listed the amount and kind a sound that is in a language but also how sounds were set up a system in the language. Language-A, for example, has the sound of the sound of others [s], [k], [t], [l], [p], [m], and [b) who is also owned by language B. However, the rules (fonotaktik), the rules governing how sounds, kiwi, with the English B make it possible for the sound [s]tiles, [k], and (t) are at the end of each person's race, while in A not. Thus the language B we find the words such as asked [æskt) and masked [mæskt] as already mentioned, but in A forms such as this cannot possibly be. So with the English B can be found (l) and (p) respectively, but not in A. We can find the words such as help and pulp plant in language B but these words is not possible in A. In contrast, in A language, English, nasal /eng (letter)/ can start a tribe as the words having a coffee and sleepy, but with the English, the English language B, this is not possible. There is no, for example, in English words such as ngik even though there is a king or ngos and song.
Output that resulted by components syntax, such as the structure hidden in (1a), then sent to components phonology to get interpretation phonological. In this component inputs from components syntax is examined in phonological, namely, observed that all the method phonological the language was kept. In the next example (1a) on we see there is looking for. The word is made up of prefix (in Indonesia) men- and root word search. Phonology component will see whether mixed with men- with search that produce looking for, according to the regulation fonotaktik our language. If there is a rare exception, like kulak and pen and it is a loan shark, not pengulak, then the exception, there are listed in these components.[20]
If there is no input from sintaktik component that contain forms phonological that violate the rules the language so the word will be rejected or treated as foreign words. So, if we find the word miss or ngos but whose language is English and the words are surely will be rejected by components phonology because jejeran sound (m) and (b) and the sound /Ν/ with the English language could not have started a word. Or, the original word is and was treated as the word, for example, in foreign words I really don't like miss Judie.
Components semantics devote himself to discuss the meaning. In these components the word is not only given the meaning as was found in most dictionaries, but also details the meaning of the so-called semantics features. The word bachelor, for example, has also to be found are exasperated at: [+N], [+man], [+man], [+adults], and [+has not been a marriage deed].  The word a virgin have (No. +N], [+man], [-a man], [+adults], [+has not been a marriage deed], and also (No. +is still a virgin].
In certain matters should also be included features semantics that are related with the elements syntax. The word to marry, for example, in addition have features [+V] and [+transitif], also requires that perpetrators are men. So, for this word must also added [+guilty man].  This is necessary to prevent the emergence of verse as Tuti would marry Ahmad next week.
Like components phonology, components semantics is also interpretif. Exodus of the components sintaktik included, in addition to components phonology, also sent to components semantics to get interpretation semantics. In these components are a set the semantics that used to determine whether input from components syntax is to rule semantics that is in the language. When applying it produces inconsistencies semantics and His words were to be anomulus; it means, could not be accepted in terms of the meaning. Verse Tuti would marry Ahmad next week as exemplified on will be rejected by components semantics as one of the features semantics to verb to marry, namely, [+guilty man], had been violated.[21]
So do words:
(2) green horse us smoking a dozen lime.
(2) of course, can be produced by components syntax because of the order sintaktik English this sentence would not violate the rules grammatical anything. However, were sent to components semantics, this will be examined. Here seen that horses have features semantics colors, but the color that is in a horse is black, white, brown. There is no horses that black-green. Even If there is a horse that color is green, he did not do what is called smoking rooms. Horses to eat, drink, diabetes, and movement but do not smoke. Even If there is a horse weird who smoke, so that they would not dirokok spheroid like orange.
It is not impossible that rule are exasperated at that is implemented, produces two different meanings. If this happens, the words of this is ambiguous. See English words are:
(3) Visiting mothers-in-law can't be a nuisance.
After this phrase is interpreted by components semantics found that there are two possibilities meaning: (a) mother-in-law who was visiting we can entangle, or (b) mother-in-law can visit menusutkan. With two reading material is then paragraph (3) must have meaning double.
After a verse passing phonology components to get interpretation phonological and simultaneously through components semantics to obtain interpretation semantics and only then can we produce whatever we want.
Three components in the theory standard Noam Chomsky can be realized in chart 1 below.
Noam Chomsky views about language, many changes. Standard theory was changed to the so-called Revised Standard Theory of the 1970s, and then in the year of 1980, laid low under a re-theory to Government and Bindings, which is often Midwest as the theory GB.[22]
Description: C:\Users\Acer\Downloads\Bab 1 Hal 23.jpg[23]
Chart 1: Models Standard Noam Chomsky 1965

 (Art) (Adj ~ mungkin) N" but "XP→X Comp" in which X is a main categories, for example, N. In a NP, N always acted as their mother; in the Government Regulation, P has always been a mother. This led to a typology languages, namely, the language may be his mother's first (headfirst) or his mother's recent years (headlast).  Language allies Britain and English, for example, is his mother's first; meanwhile, Japanese is his mother's recent years. Knowledge that a language, his mother's first or later it is very important for the children in the business he gets language.
Second, in theory before GB there is too many different transformation, there is a T-passive, T-interrogative, T-negative, etc.[24] Various this transformation has also replaced to the 'move α'.  Existed this transformation is: (a) what will be moved, (b) the element that was transferred to which, (c) places that were left behind will be given a thread (trace), and (d) of the transfer, meaning the local wide coverage cannot be passed through a clause in which the original elements are located. If we are given English word is The man who importers you is her uncle, then we will not be able to reduce verse Who did the man importers you is her uncle? Because the transfer world health organization outlook has passed through the clause children in the world health organization which was originally were.
Third, the role leksikon extended. The structure hidden now effected by leksikal features. The verb (Verb) is located, for example, is a V need (a) the perpetrators, aug, (b) an entity that is placed, pat(ient), and also (c) the place where entity is placed, Loc.. Verb looking for is V that requires aug, Pat, and Ben(efactor).
The four, keterbelajaran (learnability) simplified from some of the order to only a few principles that were more powerful engine (powerful) and universal named grammatical universal (Universal grammar, UG).  To deal with the difference between a common language with other languages, UG has a set parameters. Mother in the land or mother in the background is an example of this parameter.
The Principles and parameters is kudrati, which means that any child has supplied with the knowledge about this issue. Thus, the children only "correct" is what language that is being acquired, follow these parameters or parameters. It is too is why children do not need a long time to get their own language.
Theory GB now is replaced with the theory series that was named The Minimalist Program (Noam Chomsky 1995).  In theory deliver it no longer there is a difference between the structure hidden vs structure was born. It is assumed that sentence structure was sent down to finally terkonversikan into two types representation is different: (1) Phonetic Form (PF) and (2) Logical Form (LF). [25] Therefore, a grammatical points that reached the point keadekwatan observational (observational adequacy) must cover (a) representation PF to show how the verse is spoken and (b) representation LF to show the meaning verse. Derivations a single one of the Signs that relates to a set computing operations or the structures produces syntax, at the same time with computing PF well LF. Compute the structures PF converse syntax, into the representation PF. Meanwhile, computing the structures LF convert such syntax into the representation LF.
If representation PF only containing some of the same features as a phonetic can be interpreted, and if representation LF also only containing some of the same features as ethnicity are semantically can be interpreted, so in this kind of thing UG was said to have been fulfilled principle of full interpretation (PFI).  If representation PF and representation both meet LF PFI then said that the derivation centralised (converge).  If representation PF and/or LF broke PFI, then derivation is nabrak (crash).
Before a derivation to computing PF well LF, form leksikal leksikon beforehand from need to be selected, and then through the merger constituents-constituents, combined to form a diagram trees, with each word in diagram, have features phonetics, semantics, and grammatical. Then, this should be revealed (spellout).  Radford provide a clearer picture thus schematic as follows (Radford 1997: 172 : see also a.l. Bulbourethral Gland, 1992; Noam Chomsky 1996).
Description: C:\Users\Acer\Downloads\bab 1 Hal 25.jpg[26]

If it is in example, the theory as above will be receiving words like Ahmad will marry Tuti but rejected *Tuti will marry Ahmad. This happened because of the rejection features semantics in the word wed that does not meet the requirements LF. His Words Ahmad will mengkawini Tuti also will be rejected because prefix men- with the marriage must produce wed and not mengkawini. In other words, *Tuti will marry Ahmad and *Ahmad will marry both will Tuti nabrak, crash.

VI.            Pragmatic 
Remain Pragmatic perspective on language. Remain Pragmatic includes into the use of language of unlimited interacting and remain pragmatic based nor other aspects in communication.

B.     Speech perception
Perceptions ujaran is not an easy thing done by man, because ujaran is an activity that shot verbal without any time limit between one to another word. 
When one talk sense of hearing or singing, we should be able to distinguish the characteristic sound to the other. Sense of hearing to be able to catch and understand the series sound vocal and the consonants form a narrative, fast-slow discourse, and tone discourse that produced by a speaker. A probe tried in a electronic media is required to have a sense in perception sounds that produced by the candidate anchor. It has to be able to catch the accuracy sound vowel and consonant. In addition, it has to be able to catch quickly- slowly, the pressure this tone, as well as the candidate anchor. A commentator in the event singing competition that have become popular in television was demanded to be able to catch the accuracy tone that produced by the singers.
Based on the explanation above, the perception of sounds produced by talking are categorized into two categories, namely
  1. Perception toward the sound in the form of structural, namely vowel and consonant
  2. Perception toward the noise that a quick-slow, bleached, pressure, and tone.[27]
The linguistic, sounds vowel and consonant sounds that we have heard called segmental. The sound bhasa a quick-slow, bleached, pressure, and tone called bunyio suprasegmental or prosodi. 
 Look at three ujaran follows: a) not the number, b) Open jackfruit c) is not jackfruit, though third ujaran is different from its interpretation from one another, in third , ujaran form this could be the same [bukanahka].
In addition, a sound is also not spoken in exactly the same each time the sound, emerged. How a sound spoken influenced by an environment in which the sound is located. The sound (b) in the word rush, for instance, is not exactly the same with the sound [b) to the words blue . In the rush to the sound /b/ were influenced by the sound /u/ that followed him so that it is only a few many there are elements rounding the lips in the making this sound. In contrast, the noise of the period was to speak with the lips widened in the blue  because the sound /i/ is the sound vocal home with her lips widen. [28]
However, man is still only can mempersepsi sounds language. Of course, this kind of perception done through certain stages. Basically there are three stages in processing perception sound (Clack & Clark, 1977) :
  1. The auditori: At this stage people accept ujaran piece by piece. Ujaran was then responded in terms of features akustiknya. Concepts like the articulation, how articulation, features distingtif, and VOT[29] is very useful here because they were protesting like this that separate the noise from the noise of the other. Sounds in ujaran, we keep them in our memory auditori.[30]
  2. The phonetic : sounds, then we identification. In the process our mental,we see, for example is the sound was (No. +konsonantal], [+vois], [+nasal], etc. So is the sound environment, : what is the sound were followed by vocal or by the consonants. If by vocal, vocal about what kind - vocal front, vocal behind his back, vocal, vocal low, etc. If it is not ujaran jackfruit , then we analyze the sound mental /b/ first and determine the voice what we have heard that things such as the articulation, how articulation, and features distingtifnya. Then votnya also note that this is going to be VOT menetukan when vibrations on vocal cord that can happen.
  3. The phonological : At this stage our mental phonological rule applies to the suite sound we hear for menetukan whether sounds earlier had to follow the fonotaktik that in our language. For English, the sound /h/ could not have started a tribe said. Because of that, "native English would not be associated with the vowels. If there were the order this sound by the noise of the next, he surely would put the sound with a loud noise in his face, not in his absence. Thus the sound suite /b/, /Ə/, /h/, /i/, and /s/ will certainly be dipersepsi as beng and is , cannot be and ngis.[31]

C.     Human utterance (how human to produce the language)
Sources from the sound is lung cancer. Our lungs develop and berkempis to suck up and brings out air. This Air later alley named pharynx (pharynx).  From pharynx, there are two way that first through the nose and the second through oral cavity. All that is made with the air through the nose is called the sound nasal. Meanwhile, the noise of the ducts out through the mouth is named the sound oral. At the mouth there are two parts of the upper and lower part his mouth. Part of this section is:[32]
a.       Her lips : upper lips and lower lip. Both the lips can be are pressed to form a sound that is named bilabial which means that two lips are met. The sound like [p], [b], and [m) is the sound babalial.
b.      Teeth : for ujaran only teeth ataslah that have a role. Teeth can haul with lower lip to form a sound that is named labiodental. An example to sound like this is the sound (f) and (v) . Teeth can also haul with the tongue to form the sound like the sound [t dental and[d) in English.
c.       Alveolar: this area was exactly behind their teeth. In alveolar can be displayed the tongue to form a sound that was named the sound alveolar.
d.      Palatal hard (hard plate): this area is cavity over his mouth, just behind the alveolar. In this area can be displayed tongues to form a sound that is named alveo palatal like the sound [c) and [j].
e.       Palatal soft ( soft falate): On palatal software can be placed the rear tongues to form a sound that is named velar like the sound [k] and [g].
f.       Uvala: on the jaw bones as there is a software called uvala.
g.       Tongue is parts of the mouth flexible and can move with flexible. Tongue can be divided into several parts: the tongue (tip of the tongue), Asian tongue ( blade), before tongue (front, back of the tongue.
h.      Vocal cords (vocal cords) is a pair membrane that is in laryngeal prominence (larynx).
i.        Pharynx (pharynx) is salurang air toward oral cavity or nasal cavities.
j.        Nasal Cavities : cavity to sounds nasal like /m/ and /n/
k.      Oral Cavity : for sounds like oral /p/, /b/, /a/, and /i/.

1.      How The sound made
The sound also can be divided into two groups, they are consonant and vowel. The difference between both of which are located in making it.[33]
1.1  Making a sound Consonant
To make a sound consonant should be considered three factors: the first Fatkor point articulation, the places where articulator is located, near, and immovable. Secondary factor that is how the articulation of the lung air that we facilities. The third, factors status vocal cords.
1.2  Making a sound Vocal
Different with the consonant, the criteria that are used to form the sound vocal is (1) was rerndahnya tongue; (2) position tongue; (3) tensions tongue; and (4) forms the lips. 
1.3  Fonotatik
Each language has its own system to combine phoneme so that you can be a tribe and then he said. Thus it is not impossible that the existence of two languages that have two phoneme period but fototatiknya, namely system fonemnya different.
1.4  The structure Syllable 
The structure of the One consists of two main parts, namely onset (open), and rima (rhyme).  Rhyme consists of nuclear fallout (ncleus) and koda (coda).
1.5  Features Distingtif
Features distingtif which is in the consonants are: vokalik and konsonantal, anterior reasoning, koronal, kontinuan (continuant), straiden (strident), nasal, vois. For the sound features vocal distringtifnya high, vokalik and rear, round, and tense.
1.6  Voice onset Time
Voice onset Time, which is often abbreviated as VOT, is the time between the air to mengucaukan a consonant with the vocal cords to the sound vocal that is to follow. In the example said English man, as /m/ is [=vois], which means that tape his voice they would tremble, then made time for this sound moved quickly to the sound /æ/ is zero.
2.      The sound transmission
The sound issued by some transmitted to the inner ear audience on a wavelength air. At the moment a sound issued, the air vibrate by him and formed a kind waves. With the mechanisms which are in the ears, people accept the voice had been biding with through nerves a predator is extremely this sound and then "sent" to the brain to be processed and then caught. Processing plants in the brain led by knowledge about the language, including knowledge about how sounds were made and what features that are involved.[34]
D.    Speech Act
1.      The purpose Speech
In said, the man must have had a purpose. The purpose as delivering information in the audience. Thus, a ujaran conceived in which three elements: (a) a follow-up ujaran (speech acts); (b) cargo proposition (propositional content); (c) cargo thematic (thematic content).
1.1  A follow-up Ujaran
Searli shared a follow-up ujaran into five categories: office, directive, komisif, expressive, and the declaration. (Searli 1969:34; regretfully announces that Mrs. Mey 2002:120).
1.2  Cargo proposition
In cargo proposition audience remixing a proposition with proposes another, increasingly rising formed by a shingga understanding, a comprehensive from proposition-proposition.
1.3  Thematic Content
Cargo thematic refers to an understanding the existence of two kinds of information in his words, information for a long time (old or given information) and information new information).
2.      The General in implementation speach
What then should be done by hearing after understand a ujaran depending on various ujaran heard. Of the theory of a criminal act ujaran we know that ujaran can only be office, directive, komisif, expressive, or the declaration.
3.      Speach budgetary allowance
3.1  Implementation of a speech act Representative
Because of a speech act representative is merely the claim of things, so that we need to do is to gather cargo proposition and understand what is information for a long time and the information was new.
3.2  Implementation of a speech act directive
Speech action directive it would seem that can be divided into three groups: (a) questions with the answer yes/did not haven't; (b) questions that need answers which/(si, meng) what; and (c) the command to melaksankan things.[35]
3.3  Implementation of a speech act Komisif
As stated previously, the action speech komisif different with a follow-up ujaran directive only in their direction directive to sipendengar, komisif to spoken. Because of a speech act komisif asked not to give a command, there is no acts that must be done.
3.4  Conduct follow-up speach expressive
Because of a speech act expressive said psychological level nature a person, but its implementation is not a deed, especially his physical. 
3.5  Budgetary Allowance for Follow-up speech declaration
Because in a follow-up speech qualifications ceo declaration of support letter is needed to make his words spoken that meant, the step in understanding and additional then carry out speech is to convince themselves that the speaker is indeed has the authority to say what he said.[36]
E.     Speech Production
Speech production is the process by which spoken words are selected to be produced, have their phonetics formulated and then finally are articulated by the motor system in the vocal apparatus. Speech production can be spontaneous such as when a person creates the words of a conversation, reaction such as when they name a picture or read aloud a written word, or a vocal imitation such as in speech repetition.
Speech production is not the same as language production since language can also be produced manually by signs. In ordinary fluent conversation people pronounce each second roughly four syllables, ten or twelve phonemes and two to three words out of a vocabulary that can contain 10 to 100 thousand words. Errors in speech production are relatively rare occurring at a rate of about once in every 900 words in spontaneous speech. Words that are commonly spoken or learned early in life or easily imagined are quicker to say than ones that are rarely said, learnt later in life or abstract. [37]
Normally speech is created with pulmonary pressure /etc/portage/profile/package .provided by the lungs that generates sound by phonation in the glottis in the larynxthat then is modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and consonants. However speech production can't occur without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech by using the upper parts of the vocal trait. An example of such alaryngeal speech is Donald Duck talk.
The vocal production of speech can't be associated with the production of synchronized hand gestures enhance that act to the comprehensibility of what is being said.
Description: C:\Users\Acer\Downloads\Illu01_head_neck.jpg
Human vocal apparatus used to produce speech[38]

F.      Storage and Retrival Word
1.      Leksikon Mental
The speed in response to the well-speed in spoken to a matter that need to be addressed. This happened because of the leksikon mental well-organized a neat and access to meretrif said to come quickly will be done. Leksikon mental is the dictionary that is different from the dictionary in general.[39] The bill also uses a common mental leksikon sound, but because there is a factor kilir tongue will need a commonality concept. The content of leksikon mentality always change, always mutahir with language development that is in the community. In addition, leksikon mental possible we will create said in accordance with the rule that is in a language. Thus leksikon mental have information that there was much more, more detail, and more than the usual.

2.      Central Securities Depository word
How people to keep the words with all kinds of information that related in leksikon mental condition? There was a view that every word is stored as a separate said. The argument for this theory is that retrival that can quickly done was because we only pick only said that we want. According to the views, said kept not based on the but based on morfem. This second Arguments views that storage like this is more economical, and the time needed for meretrif said multi-morfemik longer than the bermorfem one especially with the kilir tongue.

3.      Factors for storage and retrival word
Problems in storage and retrival said that is about how the word is kept in mind that can easily diretrif? It can be said that the Central Securities depository and retrival words are not only one or two, but also a network connected to each other. One word would be easy to diretrif when the word is often used. The/morfem stored based medan semantiknya so that it is unlikely that the kilir tongue. In addition medan semantics, also used in sintaktik. The distribution said to the page and the function seems to have also had a profound influence terhadpa storage process and retrival said. Central Securities Depository and retrifal said also can be seen through similarities with the sound.

4.      Knowledge about word
To understand a word first we must know the semantics tell it, then know category syntactic, phonological, and finally the aspects pragmatic.

5.      The meaning of an word
The meaning of an said is the object that is referred to by the word. Some said that the word does not refer to object but on the concept, to the idea, about object. With the theory ideasional that can be said that it is unstable, and then another theory emerged which is the theory features and the theory based on knowledge.[40]
a.       Features theory
According to this theory the concept is composed of a group unit that is named features. The concept has a restrictive essential features of any other concepts. Problems that arise from these features are mostly theory was that the world is not black or white in the sense is not always a concept have all features.
This theory and updated with Family Resemblance Theory, the theory there are similarity this requires family. Through features that are then established prototipenya features that are represented at the most in the family.
b.      Theory Based on knowledge
This theory based on esensialisme kontektualisme psychology and psychology. Esensialisme psychology is a theory that a foundation on which essentially features theory but that has been extended. Essence that makes an entity as is.
Kontekstualisme psychology is also based on a theory features that has been extended. According to this theory context-specific context raises link between features of a concept with any other concepts in a category.
Thus features listing is not enough to represent all the concept but as a starting point is used only for then megorek knowledge. The difference between theory and features theory based on knowledge is that in theory, features features to determine the concept. While the theory based on knowledge, features did not specify the concept.

6.      The concept Organization
a.       Model Petitioners failed submit Semantics
This model proposed Collins and Quillian. In this model, the concept related one with other Petitioners failed submit overall. The weakness of this theory: the words abstract not made hierarchy, is not always follow hierarchy, the distance semantics period is not an amount of time reactions that period.
b.       Model features comparison
This model developed Smith et al. This model concept in two features, 1) features that must be, 2) features that optional. Both these features than through two stages, the first all features of two concepts or more than. Second, the point where is that only features that must be just like that.
c.       Spreading Activation Network model
This model has been put forward Collins and Loftus. The concept is reflected in nodes that related, the distance between one node with other nodes in his close relationship between a concept with a concept at once. The model of this work is if a concept activated so 'mainstream stops' spread to any other concepts that related.[41]





[3] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[4] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[5] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[6] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[7] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[8] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]

[9] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[10] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]

[11] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[12] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[13] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[14] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]

[15] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[16] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[17] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[18] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[19] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[20] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[21] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[22] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[23] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]
[24] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[25] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[26] Hassan, E. A. Dkk. Available at: http://bmp6103.blogspot.com/2007/07/ru.html [July 5, 2007]

[28] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[29] VOT is Voice Onset Time, the time between the release of the air to the pronunciation of a consonant with the vibration of the vocal cords for the vowel that follows it. (Soenjono Dardjowidjojo. Psikolinguistik. Page 46)
[37] Wikipedia. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_production [August 19, 2014]
[39] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[40] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
[41] D, Soenjono. (2005).  Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia
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